Migration has always been an internal part of the socio-economic story in India. Millions move across districts, states and regions in search of better livelihoods, education, marriage and others. States like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Rajasthan and West Bengal continue to record the highest outflow of migrant workers into the booming urban centers of western and southern India. These movements are driven by aspiration for better wages, upward mobility and access to opportunities, while distress driven by low agricultural productivity, unemployment and climate variability also plays its part.
Mobility in India comes with vulnerabilities where migrants often remain invisible in welfare systems have insecure jobs, live in informal settlements and are unable to integrate socially into the cities where they move to. In recognition of this over the past decade, the Government of India has moved away from a model of welfare linked to domicile to one that is far more portable, technology-driven which is able to recognize mobility as central to India development trajectory. In tandem with these changes in policy, the National Sample Survey system is preparing for the most comprehensive migration survey, one that will capture short-term, seasonal and circular migration with far greater precision than in the past.
Migration in India: NSS Definitions and a stronger statistical architecture
The National Sample Survey has traditionally defined a migrant as a person who has moved from the last “Usual Place of Residence” to the current place of enumeration. This definition has gained attraction over the decades, through successive survey rounds from the labour force-related questionnaires of the 1950s to the detailed migration schedules of the 64th round and the migration modules introduced in the PLFS after 2020.
The NSS Migration Survey coming up in 2026–27 marks a decisive shift. For the first time, the NSS will capture migration spells of 15 days or more, allowing the system to account accurately for seasonal and short-term migrant’s groups that were noncounted in the past. The survey will estimate migration rates, out-migration, net migration, reasons for movement and post-migration outcomes. The new SSS classification or by categorizing households by remittances, out-migration status and presence of short-term migrants will ensure more representative sampling across India’s diverse mobility patterns.
Strengthening statistical visibility will help India in making policies based not on assumption, but on ground evidence critical in the design of labour mobility frameworks, urban planning strategies and cross-state welfare systems.
Why Indians Migrate: Economic, Social and Environmental Drivers
Economic factors continue to be the prime driver of migration flows. Underemployment and seasonal volatility in rural labour markets create a push for workers towards the non-agricultural sectors like construction, manufacturing, logistics, retail and services. With rapid urbanization in India, these sectors have emerged as strong magnets for youth in pursuit of stability and opportunity.
Social factors particularly marriage, family migration and education, continue to be strong drivers of mobility for females. Growing environmental factors are also contributing to increasing events of climate-induced disasters of floods, droughts, cyclones and land erosion in eastern and coastal India.
Seasonal and short-term migration adds another layer. Workers employed in agriculture, brick kilns, mining and construction often move for weeks or months. These movements have long existed outside formal datasets. The revised NSS definition finally brings these movements into the national statistical fold.
Challenges and Government Interventions by Building a Portable Welfare State
While migration fuels the economic engine of India, it exposes workers with low-income and informal sectors to severe vulnerabilities. Access to welfare benefits depended upon domicile, housing conditions remained precarious and informal labour arrangements offered little security or protection.
The Government of India has articulated a set of transformative interventions in recent years in an attempt to correct these historical exclusions.
- One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC): Reinforcing Food Security Portability
ONORC emerged as one of the most impactful welfare reforms for migrants. Today, all 36 States/UTs are integrated under ONORC, thus enabling NFSA beneficiaries to access subsidised foodgrains anywhere in the country using Aadhaar authentication.
According to official data, more than 81 crore beneficiaries are currently covered under NFSA and portability transactions under ONORC have crossed 100 crores. This reflects its wide adoption among migrant households.
- e-Shram Portal: A National Registry of Migrant and Unorganised Workers
The e-Shram portal, launched in 2021, is India’s first national database for unorganized sector workers. As updated by the Government, more than 30 crore workers are registered on the platform. The database has a large share of construction workers, agricultural labourers, gig workers and inter-state migrants. It is the UAN generated under e-Shram that will help in the targeted delivery of social security benefits and emergency response measures.
- ARHCs – Affordable Rental Housing Complexes for Migrants
ARHCs were launched under PMAY-Urban to address the migrant housing issue. The scheme repurposes government housing and encourages private participation to develop affordable rental dormitory-style and family units near industrial clusters.
Official data reflects significant progress in the conversion of vacant housing stocks and the grounding of projects directly related to PMAY-Urban, which caters to migrant workers and low-income families in urban areas.
- Labour Codes and Occupational Safety
The new labour codes strengthen occupational safety, minimum wages and social security provisions. They bring informal sector workers, including a large migrant workforce, into a more predictable regulatory environment. Many state governments have complemented these measures with Migration Support Centres, dedicated helplines, skill mapping programmes and inter-state coordination cells. Taken together, these interventions signal a systemic shift where India is building a portable welfare state where the benefits follow the workers not the location.
NSS Data, Policy Impact and the Road Ahead
A sound statistical system is thus the backbone of good governance. The enhanced NSS Migration Survey will bring granular data on mobility patterns, labour participation, income shifts, remittances and settlement behaviour. This will help inform policy in various spheres:
• Urban Planning: Cities will thus be more able to estimate provisions of housing, infrastructure and essential services.
• Labour Market Reforms: Skilling and employment policies can be better aligned with the actual workforce movements because short-term and circular migrants are clearly visible.
Social Protection Systems: The portability of schemes such as ONORC, PM-JAY, DBT and e-Shram requires accurate migrant databases.
• Disaster Preparedness: Knowledge of climate-induced mobility enables district-level planning and resilient development strategies.
• Rural Development: Remittance-linked mobility patterns are shaping local economies and household wellbeing.
Migration remains an intrinsic element of the socio-economic landscape in India, driving urbanization, industrial growth, skill diversification and the rise of aspirational rural households. However, this mobility requires supportive policies in order to protect, empower and integrate migrant populations.
With increased welfare portability, strong digital platforms, better labour standards and a more sensitive NSS survey framework, India is moving to adopt a humane, resilient and evidence-based model of migration governance. The upcoming NSS Migration Survey will help this next phase to ensure that the migrant households of India are visible, supported and included in the country’s development journey.
