Morungs of the Konyak community: from the private papers of WG Archer, ADC of Mokokchang, Naga Hills
The history of Bharat has long been sustained through traditions of knowledge, memory, administration and cultural continuity that enabled a civilisation of immense geographical and social diversity to remain interconnected across centuries. From systems of governance and trade to pilgrimage networks, philosophical traditions and literary production, the Indian subcontinent evolved through continuous processes of communication and intellectual exchange. North Eastern Bharat, like every other region of Bharat, formed an integral part of this larger civilisational framework. Far from existing in isolation, the region nurtured kingdoms, diplomatic systems, industries, manuscript traditions and institutions of learning that reflected a deeply rooted culture of knowledge preservation and dissemination.
The very continuity of Bharatiya civilisation stands as evidence of a vibrant intellectual tradition. How else could a land as vast and culturally interconnected as Bharat sustain systems of governance, trade, diplomacy, pilgrimage, warfare and social organisation over centuries without mechanisms for preserving and transmitting knowledge? More specifically, how could the kingdoms and societies of North Eastern Bharat negotiate treaties, administer territories, preserve genealogies and maintain specialised industries without systems of communication, documentation and intellectual exchange? Thus, the societies of North Eastern Bharat developed diverse methods of recording and preserving knowledge. These traditions found expression not only through oral narratives and ritual practices, but also through inscriptions, manuscripts, chronicles and systems of official correspondence. Customary laws, historical memory, social conduct and political legitimacy were transmitted across generations through community institutions and hereditary systems of knowledge preservation. Among the Mizos, for instance, traditional society distinguished between Khawtlang Dan, or public law, and Mimal Dan, laws concerning individuals. Systems of fines known as Salam regulated punishment and compensation. Such distinctions demonstrate that legal categorisation and civic regulation existed long before the arrival of colonial legal frameworks. Together, these instances reveal a region that was intellectually active, politically organised and historically conscious long before the advent of colonial rule. Alongside oral systems, the region also possessed a strong culture of writing and inscription. The Yogini Tantra refers to the writing and engraving of letters upon materials such as bark, leaves, earth, gold, copper and silver. This reference is particularly significant because it reveals familiarity with multiple mediums of documentation and preservation. Writing was therefore not isolated or accidental, but materially adaptive and integrated into social and political life.
The diplomatic traditions of pre-colonial North Eastern Bharat were reflected not only through warfare but also through documented negotiations and wartime correspondence
Inscriptions & Letters
The diplomatic culture of the region also reveals considerable intellectual refinement. Historical accounts record that Xuanzang was invited to the court of Bhaskaravarman through formal written correspondence carried by royal messengers. Bhaskaravarman’s reputation as a scholar is further reflected in the Doobi Copper Plates, which describe him as a ruler deeply learned in the Shastras and gifted with poetic brilliance and eloquence. Xuanzang himself noted that the king was fond of learning and that scholars from distant regions visited his court seeking patronage and recognition. Chinese accounts further suggest that Bhaskaravarman expressed interest in obtaining Sanskrit translations of Chinese philosophical works, reflecting intellectual engagement that extended beyond regional boundaries.
The inscriptional traditions of the region further demonstrate this continuity of written culture. The Kanai-Barasi-Bowa rock inscription in present-day Assam, dating to 1206 CE, records the victory of Raja Prithu over the invading army of Muhammad-bin-Bakhtiyar Khilji. The inscription not only documents a major military event but also reflects a conscious effort to preserve political memory for posterity. Copper plate traditions similarly reveal the use of durable inscriptional mediums for grants, administration and historical recording.
Such traditions continued into later centuries. When Raja Ram Singh, a Syiem in the Khasi Hills, died in 1835, his memorial stone carried engravings in the Khasi language using the Bengali script. This example is particularly important because it demonstrates the existence of inscriptional and written traditions in the Khasi Hills prior to the large-scale reorganisation of education and script under missionary influence.
Networks of Governance
The existence of organised communication systems further reflects the sophistication of pre-colonial administration in the region. Historical records mention officers such as the Dutaka, Lekhahdraka and Dirgadvagdha, who transmitted royal commands, carried official correspondence and served as couriers and escorts. Such systems indicate institutionalised mechanisms of communication capable of sustaining governance across geographically difficult terrain. The diplomatic traditions of pre-colonial North Eastern Bharat were reflected not only through warfare but also through documented negotiations, wartime correspondence, surrender protocols, reciprocal political procedures and recognised mechanisms of post-war settlement.
Kingdoms across the region maintained treaties, territorial agreements and systems of political communication that required organised administrative structures and institutional memory. One such example was the Treaty of Majuli of 1563 between the Koch ruler Nara Narayan and the Ahom king Sukhaamphaa, concluded after the successful Koch campaign led by Chilarai. The agreement reportedly established the Dhansiri River as a recognised political boundary, demonstrating territorial consciousness and negotiated sovereignty between regional powers. Similarly, conflicts between the Chutiya and Ahom kingdoms reveal the existence of documented political procedures even during periods of warfare. Historical accounts suggest the presence of surrender agreements, negotiations for peace and post-war settlement mechanisms involving treasure and compensation, indicating that warfare in the region was accompanied by systems of correspondence, legal procedure and diplomatic engagement rather than being conducted through arbitrary conquest alone. Such evidence challenges the colonial portrayals of the North East as a loosely organised frontier drenched in savagery and barbarism.
Diplomatic exchanges between kingdoms also reveal sophisticated systems of communication and analytical thought. One remarkable account describes how the ruler of Cooch Behar sent an epistle written in invisible ink to the Ahom monarch Khora Raja. The message reportedly baffled the Ahom court until a mathematician deciphered it by reading it in darkness, where the letters appeared in brightness. The anecdote reflects not merely diplomatic correspondence but also experimentation with materials, analytical reasoning and the presence of specialised intellectual expertise within royal courts.
Archives of Knowledge
The manuscript traditions of North Eastern Bharat provide perhaps the clearest evidence of organised systems of knowledge production. Manuscripts preserved across archives and institutions reveal engagement with a wide range of disciplines including astronomy, astrology, arithmetic, medicine, governance, warfare, genealogy, navigation, topography and literature. Far from being confined to religious instruction alone, these manuscripts demonstrate systematic attempts to study, categorise and preserve specialised knowledge.
The transmission of knowledge in pre-colonial North Eastern Bharat was also sustained through indigenous educational institutions that were deeply embedded within society
Scientific and mathematical knowledge formed an important part of these traditions. Texts such as Lilavati Katha and Kitabata Manjari reveal the circulation of mathematical learning within the region. Astronomical and astrological manuscripts such as Leithak Leikharol, Bhagwati Grahan and Bhaswati demonstrate continued observation and interpretation of celestial systems. Medical manuscripts including Hastividarnaba, Ghora Nidana and Nidan Puthi further indicate extensive indigenous knowledge relating to healing and medicine.
The manuscripts also reveal specialised technical and ecological knowledge. Works relating to boats and navigation such as Hirol Tengtha and Hiyanglon reflect sophisticated understanding of riverine transport systems and boat-making traditions. Texts concerning warfare, topography and administration similarly indicate practical engagement with governance, geography and military organisation.
Historical consciousness occupied an equally important place within the manuscript traditions of the region. Royal chronicles and genealogical texts such as Rajmala and Cheitharol Kumbaba preserved dynastic memory and political history through systematic record keeping. Literary and grammatical works further reveal traditions of poetic expression, language study and philosophical thought. Together, these manuscripts demonstrate that intellectual activity in the region was specialised, categorised and institutionally preserved rather than random or incidental.
Indigenous Centres of Learning
The transmission of knowledge in pre-colonial North Eastern Bharat was also sustained through indigenous educational institutions that were deeply embedded within society. Among the most prominent of these were the Sanskrit Tols and the Morungs. Sanskrit Tols functioned as traditional centers of higher learning where subjects such as Vedic studies, grammar (Vyakarana), astrology (Jyotish) and philosophy were studied and taught. Supported through royal patronage dating back to the Varman dynasty, these institutions played a significant role in preserving literary, intellectual and scholarly traditions within the region.
The cultural and intellectual systems of pre-colonial North Eastern Bharat therefore reveal not an isolated frontier but a region deeply engaged in preserving and transmitting knowledge across generations. Its societies documented political events, maintained legal systems, studied astronomy and medicine, produced manuscripts, preserved genealogies and participated in wider networks of intellectual exchange. Colonial rule did not introduce knowledge into an empty landscape; rather, it reordered existing hierarchies of knowledge and selectively legitimised certain traditions while marginalising others.
