Eco critical theory provides a framework to analyse and interpret literary, film, and other cultural works that engage with environmental themes. It encourages readers and viewers to consider, how these works depict human relationships with the natural world, and how they shape our understanding of environmental issues.
In ancient Western civilisations, there were several models and concepts that reflected an understanding of ecological principles and the importance of maintaining harmony with the environment. Here are a few examples:
Greek philosophy and the concept of eudemonia: Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Aristotle and Plato, recognised the interconnectedness of humans with the natural world. They believed that human well-being, or eudemonia, was dependent on living in harmony with nature and fulfilling our roles as caretakers of the earth.
Stoicism and the unity of nature: Stoic philosophers, like Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, emphasised the unity of all things in nature. They believed that humans were part of a larger ecological system and should strive to live in accordance with nature’s laws. This included practising moderation and avoiding excesses in order to maintain equilibrium.
Roman agricultural practices: The ancient Romans developed sophisticated agricultural techniques, such as terracing, crop rotation, and water management systems. These practices aimed to maintain soil fertility and prevent soil erosion, contributing to sustainable land use and food production.
Medieval Christian theology and stewardship: In medieval Europe, Christian theology played a significant role in shaping environmental ethics. The concept of stewardship emerged, which emphasised humans’ responsibility to care for and protect God’s creation. This perspective encouraged sustainable resource management and respect for the environment.
Traditional land management practices: Many ancient Western societies had traditional land management practices rooted in ecological knowledge. For example, Native American tribes in North America practised controlled burning to promote regrowth and maintain healthy ecosystems.
These ancient Western models and concepts demonstrate an awareness of ecological principles and the importance of living in harmony with the environment. While these perspectives may differ from those in the Indian Knowledge system, they share a common understanding of the need for sustainable practices and the interconnectedness of all life forms.
European Eco critical theory is based on the Biblical concept “Conquer all”. It advocated the philosophy of exploitation of all resources for optimum utilisation. These verses in the Book of Genesis explain how ruling over the resources has been encouraged, contrary to Indian ethics of worshipping nature:
“God blessed them; and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth, and subdue it; and rule over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the sky and over every living thing that moves on the earth.” (Genesis 1: 28)
It was in consonance with Western materialistic and hedonistic philosophy. The Renaissance, in its aftermath, opened new venues for exploration of the unexplored and geographical discoveries. The Industrial Revolution led to the creation of new markets for surplus goods in England and other European countries. Consumption became the driving force behind all expeditions, and preservation and conservation of natural resources took a back seat. It was further perpetuated by the colonisation of Asian, African and other countries. Colonisation exploited the natural resources of the native countries at the cost of the future consequences of their indiscriminate activities. These indiscriminate activities severed the natural bond between man and nature. Gradually, the European model of development shaped the Eco critical theory of the West. The Romantic movement in English literature tried to revive the loss of contact with nature, and Wordsworth gave the clarion call of “Let Nature be your teacher.
Wordsworth wrote” One speck from Vernal wood may teach you more of man , of moral evil and good than all the sages can”.
Wordsworth’s philosophy of Nature was contrary to the capitalistic notions of growth and advocated for the alignment of human activities with nature. Nature at the core of his philosophy is ‘a friend, philosopher and guide’. Nevertheless, the European model of development continued to be driven by the impulses of the conquest of nature for the growth of a society and nation. Railways, transport, telegraphs, and mining activities destroyed the natural fabrics of the native countries. The dictum of ‘conquer all ‘ gave an unlimited range of powers and privileges to the founders and promoters of this model, which further led to gross intervention and intrusion into the domain of nature and environment. The western model of development advocated the exploitation of rich resources so that these could be harnessed to the growth of mankind. They forgot that the law of reciprocation works on give and take in order to maintain equity, harmony and sustainability. The ominous conflict was bound to result in environmental pollution and depletion of natural resources, coupled with a population explosion. Western eco-critical theory was nurtured and promulgated with a feeble pretext of awareness rather than an article of faith and reverence, unlike the Indian traditional knowledge system.
Contrary to Europeans, the Indian traditional knowledge system seldom practised the philosophy of conquering all. In our country, trees, seas, mountains, sun, moon and other numerous anthropomorphic symbols have been tested with reverence and a sense of gratitude from time immemorial. We have traditions of treating the mother earth ( Aditi), forests, vayu, mountains ( Govardhan, Giriraj) from the Rig Vedic periods. Plants and trees such as Tulsi, banana, coconut, peepul, bargad, and neem have been considered propitious in various rituals and ceremonies, and cutting such trees and plants is still a taboo. The veneration and worship of such trees is embedded in the Hindu philosophy of preservation and conservation of vegetation. Hinduism, by its philosophy, inculcates a sense of divine allegiance to nature. All our rivers are worshipped as sacred deities, and most of them are treated as of divine origin. The Ganga, Krishana, Narmada, Kaveri, Godavari, Sarswati, Yamuna are examples in case. The philosophy behind reverence to the rivers was an act of expression of gratitude for the utilisation of water resources for various purposes and multiplication of resources. Rig-Veda mentions Ganga with utmost veneration in more than 108 hymns. So does appear Sarswati. Nadisuktam is a celebration of these water bodies as preservers of mankind and purifiers of human sins. Ram’s begging at the sea for the passage is his adherence to the law of nature. Sita’s worship of the Ganga at Prayag after the exile marks the benevolent act of gratitude to nature.
The entire Hindu pantheon rather enjoined and encouraged the entire humanity to bow with humility and reverence to nature. The Rig-Veda treats flora and fauna as the sustainer and preserver of all species. The adulatory prayers and entreaties celebrate the ecosystem as a driving force of nature. There are numerous adulatory hymns dedicated to water, Vayu as the giver of life. We human beings are respected as an indispensable source of life and expected to respect these gifts of nature with a deep sense of reverence and gratitude. The entire forestry and ecosystem has been duly venerated by our Vedas in the dictum ” बन अस्थाप्य ध्वयम”. The Vedas propagate the philosophy of promoting ecological balance by conserving and enriching natural resources. Undoubtedly, ancient Indian literary and philosophical systems never preach an aggressive attitude toward the wealth of nature; rather, they preach the doctrine of coexistence with a great sense of reverence. They show genuine concern for the preservation of environmental protection. Ancient Indian traditions induce the indomitable spirit of protection of environmental system. Ishopnishad preaches the most sacrosanct principle of protection of the environment in the following mantra:”
” ईशावास्य मिदम सर्व वतकिंचम जगत्यां जगत ।
तेन तकत्येंन भुजीथा , मां गृद्ध: क्यस्यस्विद्धानम।।
It means “The whole universe is replete with the wealth of God, therefore it must be prudently used with the spirit of austerity and sacrifice only as one should not ever try to impinge on others’ rights”. Contrary to the European model of development, the Indian traditional knowledge system puts emphasis on ‘use with austerity” and not exploitation or conquest of resources. The glaring paradox between the Western model of growth and the inclusive and sustainable model of the Indian traditional knowledge system marks the triumph of the latter over the former. While the Western model preaches a growth model at the cost of an aggressive and destructive attitude to nature, the Indian model of growth preaches inclusiveness, reverence, proliferation and abundance with the spirit of preservation. The Indian concepts of ‘ van devi’ and ‘ van sampada’ are deeply embedded in the attitude of the Indian thought process to nature. The very concept of treating all resources of nature with utmost reverence and gratitude explains the urge for preservation and conservation of Nature. It further explains the sensitivity to nature and calls for inclusiveness, sustainability, ecological balance and diversity. All rishis, gurukul ashrams and folk tales preach and practice a symbiotic relationship between man and nature. The cult of anthropomorphism is an extended expression of this concern.
They seek to promote environmental awareness and advocate for sustainable practices. Multiplication of cattle wealth and forest wealth is a condition of prosperity. In the Rig-Veda, there are numerous hymns underlining this urge for sustainable development. In ‘Chhandogya Upanishad ‘, the story of Satyakam is a brilliant example of this belief. After getting a formal education, Satyakam is sent to the forest with 400 cows by his Guru. His Guru suggests that he come back only after the number multiplies by 1000.
The target given to Satyakam by his Guru embodies the ancient wisdom of human efforts in preserving and multiplying cattle wealth for sustainability and growth. Satyakam achieves this target, and while returning from the forest, Brahamgyan dawns on him. This divine knowledge is bestowed upon him by a bull, two aquatic birds- swan and cormorant ( madgu), besides Agni ( fire). The basic purpose behind sending him to the forest was to make him understand that one’s true learning is only complete when one gets integrated with nature harmoniously, with hands-on training. In the entire process, the whole host of nature plays a significant role as gurus (teachers). The love of learning results in increased love for nature, awareness of its importance, and an urge for its preservation and multiplication. The law of reciprocation defines the mutual give and take. If we only receive without giving, it has been described as a sinful act in the Indian Knowledge system, to induce among the masses the sense of the law of reciprocation.
Bhagwat Gita ( chapter 3, sloka 12) says that if a person receives something from someone and he doesn’t reciprocate, then this act is deemed to be a sinful act of a thief. Such moral adherence to ecological
इष्टान्भोगान्हि वो देवा दास्यन्ते यज्ञभाविता: |
तैर्दत्तानप्रदायैभ्यो यो भुङ्क्ते स्तेन एव स: || 12||
Similarly, the world that we live in was made by God, and everything in it belongs to him. If we utilise his creation for our pleasure, without acknowledging his dominion over it, from the divine perspective, we are certainly committing theft.
Such consciousness essentially reflects two things: first, respect for nature and its ecological wealth, and secondly, the morality of individualistic responsibility for preservation of the resources, followed by their prudent use. Such consciousness evolves the collective wisdom of preservation and conservation of natural resources. It also undermines the material concerns, putting the ecological ethics above hedonistic principles. Poaching and indiscriminate cutting of trees could be controlled for a better world. The sense of evil and sin induces fear and its retributive consequences, checking the temptation with caution. Anthropologically speaking, the fear of supernatural and animistic powers helped the tribals in treating certain groves as sacred, which helps them in the preservation and conservation of ecology. Cutting of trees in such protected areas was considered taboo.
Environmental consciousness in the Indian knowledge system is inbuilt in its scriptures, literature and thought process.
It was nurtured and promoted by the rishis, philosophers, poets, writers and philosophers. The Gurukul model of the Indian Education system was a great driving force for the practice and dissemination of ideas related to values, culture, and the significance of environmental consciousness among the masses. Bhartiy Shikshan Mandal practices and promotes the Gurukul system to emphasise holistic education for the all-around development of students. The Gurukul model not only inculcates the values among students but also gives them Sanskar. The richness, diversity and inclusiveness of Indian ecological concepts seem to be apparently missing in the western model.
Pancha Mahabhuta (Five great elements): According to ancient Indian philosophy, the universe is composed of five elements – earth, water, fire, air, and space. These elements are seen as the building blocks of all living beings and are believed to be in a delicate balance. A disruption in this balance can lead to ecological imbalances, and therefore, humans should strive to maintain harmony with these elements.
Ayurveda (The science of life): Ayurveda is an ancient Indian system of medicine that emphasises holistic well-being. It recognises the intimate connection between human health and the environment. Ayurvedic practices strive to maintain a balance between individuals and their surroundings, promoting sustainable practices and the use of natural resources in a responsible manner. Agroecology and organic farming: Ancient Indian agricultural practices, such as agroecology and organic farming, were based on the understanding of ecological principles. These practices promoted the use of natural fertilisers, crop rotation, and companion planting to maintain soil fertility and prevent pests, thus ensuring long-term sustainable food production. Sathpatha Brahmans prescribe different prescriptions related to agriculture and agro ecology. The spirit behind all these practices was preservation and conservation of the environment for a sustainable and profitable economy on the one hand and sustaining ecology on the other.
In ancient India, the forest was treated as a storehouse of forest resources; be it plants, herbs, animals or medicinal plants. The entire ayurvedic system evolved from the knowledge of rishis who researched medicinal plants for curing different diseases. Aranayaks are not only forest stories but a great source of knowledge that glorifies forest wealth.
Environmental consciousness is embedded in Indian culture, not as material wealth, but as a creed of life intertwined with the philosophy of preservation, conservation and management for sustainable growth. Sangh, in the year of completion of 100 years, puts emphasis on Panch Parivartan, preservation and enrichment of ecology and environment, which is an integral part of it. Sangh’s tryst with ecology shows a futuristic concern to make the world a better place to live in. In conclusion, the Indian model of development offers a timeless paradigm centred on respect, restraint, and sustainability, fundamentally differing from the Western model’s growth-centric, consumer-driven approach. Integrating these Indian principles of environmental consciousness into modern development could guide the world toward more sustainable and equitable futures, balancing human needs with the health of the planet.
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